One Of The Best And Most Influential - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1150 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/07/29 Category People Essay Level High school Topics: Walt Whitman Essay Did you like this example? Walt Whitman is considered one of the best and most influential of the 1800s and the Americas. Whitmans love for America and democracy is what truly made him into one of the best, even till this day, poets in the world.(Costanzo) Whitman had many poems about his life, the civil war, love, America, and many more. Whitmans poetry was heavily based on the period that he lived which was the civil war. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "One Of The Best And Most Influential" essay for you Create order Whitman uses poetry to reflect on his feelings, his life, and also his impact on the poetry in the Americas, these pieces include O Captain! My Captain!, Crossing Brooklyn Ferry and A Noiseless Patient Spider. Walt Whitmans early life was fascinating. Whitman, born on May 31, 1819, Whitman was originally from Long Island(Costanzo). Whitman moved to Brooklyn when he was only six years old for his father to find work. Unfortunately, Whitmans father was not able to find work, because of this Whitmans father took him out of school and into work to make an income for the sizeable ten-person family. Whitman began to work at a Brooklyn attorney office when he was only eleven. Whitman became a teacher at the age of seventeen, despite Whitmans passion for writing. Whitman still being young quit his teaching job and went back Long Island to become a journalist(Costanzo). However, Whitman just a few years later found himself without a job and went back to the city.(Costanzo) Whitman was hired for the Brooklyn Daily Newspaper as an editor and covered some controversial writing. This is what sparked Whitmans idea of becoming a writer. But this also came with a downfall due to these topics Whitman had a reputation and not a good one, Whitman kept losing his jobs due to these topics and was never financially or emotionally stable. Keep in mind Whitman was only about twenty-five in this period. Since Whitman was still very young, he was emotionally unstable throughout his late twenties early thirties. This can also be because many people believe that Whitman was bi-sexual or even homosexual. In 1800 being gay is very frowned upon so him not being able to tell some one must have taken a toll emotionally on Whitman. Whitmans later life was very drama-filled and did a number on Whitmans family. Whitman in 1855 began and finished a poetry book named Leaves of Grass (Walt Whitman Biography). This let Whitman Find his true voice and style of writing(Walt Whitman Biography) Whitmans Family has split apart due to the civil war. In the year 1862 Whitman went to Fredericksburg to search for his brother George (Walt Whitman Biography). Whitmans Brother fought for the union and was being treated there for his injuries. Whitman moved to Washington, D.C. the next year and found part-time work in the paymasters office, spending much of the rest of his time visiting wounded soldiers.(Walt Whitman Biography) The volunteering work that Whitman did changed his life(Walt Whitman Biography). By his rough estimates, Whitman made 600 hospital visits and saw anywhere from 80,000 to 100,000 patients. The work took a toll physically, but also propelled him to return to poetry. (Walt Whitman Biography) This did change his life, soon after his volunteer work, he released a collection known as Drum-Taps. This collection showed the civil war in all of its horror. Whitman showed people why war was hurting this country and not helping it, he made people realize the impacts that war has on families and relationships. Even after the war was over Whitman continued to help wounded veterans. While doing this he met a young man named Peter Doyal, a young Confederate soldier and train car conductor. Whitman, who had a quiet history of becoming close with younger men amidst a time of great taboo around homosexuality, developed an instant and intense romantic bond with Doyle. (Walt Whitman Biography) During the mid-1860s Whitman had found a job in Washington as a clerk in the Indian Bureau of the Department of the Interior. He continued to pursue literary projects, and in 1870 he published two new collections, Democratic Vistas, and Passage to India, along with the fifth edition of Leaves of Grass.(Walt Whitman Biography) Whitman in 1873 suffered from a stroke which left half of his body paralyzed. A few months after the stroke he traveled to Camden, New Jersey (Walt Whitman Biography). Whitman in his final years was happy but also frustrated with his work, he knew his life was coming to an end and he wanted to continue working on all of his pieces Unfortunately, March 26, 1 892, is when Whitman passed because of pleurisy. In the very famous poem O Captain!My Captain! Whitman uses a lot of symbolism to show the civil war in all of its horror. Whitman greatly admired Abraham Lincoln. He wrote O Captain! My Captain! in honor of the president in 1865, shortly after Lincolns assassination. Whitman saw Lincoln as the greatest and most moral person in the country, (Hearst Seattle Media). Whitman praised Lincoln for being an average American who was able to unite this country, this is why Whitman chose Lincoln to be his captain (Hearst Seattle Media). In the first line of Whitmans work, the speaker says that he and his captain reached the end of the fearful trip, which is a reference to the Civil War. In the second and third stanzas, the speaker refers to Lincoln as his father, as though the late presidents efforts had brought the country together as a family. (Hearst Seattle media) Whitman writes about his admiration for Lincoln, all of the stanzas include something that the speaker admires about his captain . Not only did Whitman use the captain as symbolism, but he also used the ship which was weathered and torn in half. The ship in Whitmans poem symbolizes the United States. Just as a ship endures turbulent winds while on the water, the country survived the hardships and sacrifices of the Civil War. The speaker says that they won the prize that they sought during their voyage. The prize represents the peaceful reunification of the Northern and Southern states. (Hearst Seattle media) Both of these symbols are heald deep inside of Whitmans heart, The war has affected America and Whitman personally and he wants to show that in his work. The ships anchor is also a significant symbol in the poem, it symbolizes the end of the civil war(Hearst Seattle media). Whitman makes sure to show the end of the war to teach the reader that tomorrow will always be a better day and hardships might be here now but eventually, good times will come again. Another of the significant symbolism Whitman make sure the reader knows that the people in the second stanza who welcomed the ship are the people who supported and praised Lincoln and were happy that the most bloody war in American history was coming to an end (Hearst Seattle media).

Principles Of Ethics Respect For Autonomy, Beneficence,...

During labour, her condition was worsening, the medical team contended whether to give T the blood transfusion which they found to be against the law. On the contrary, T’s Father and brother did not approve this. They decided to take the case to court. The judge identified that T’s mother pressurised her in making the decision not to receive the blood transfusion. Further, the judge granted T receiving the blood transfusion, doing so will preserve her life which should be the uttermost purpose and outcome of any treatment. Ethical Aspects There are four principles of ethics: Respect for autonomy, Beneficence, Non maleficence and Justice. This four principles offers comprehensive thought of the ethical issues in clinical settings (Beauchamp and Childress 2001 cited in UK Clinical ethics Network 2011). Respect for Autonomy Cambridge (2016) defines autonomy as the ability to make a decision without any influence from any individual. Similarly, it is the freedom for someone to exercise their own will or action (Dictionary.com 2016). Buka (2015) described been autonomous as a person having the capability to make choices meant for oneself which can be done through self-determination or self- government. Self- determination has to do with been able to carry out own desires or wishes and how the individual wants to live their life. Self-government means a patient can govern their lives through certain rules and values (Baker and Baldwin 1995 cited in Buka 2015) This impliesShow MoreRelatedThe Four Principles in Biomedical Ethics1555 Words   |  7 Pagesindividual’s beliefs and preference across the world. Due to these controversies, the four principles in biomedical ethic which includes autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice help us understand and explain which medical practices are ethical and acceptable. These principles are not only used to protect the rights of a patient but also the physician from being violated. The principle of autonomy states, that an individual’s decision must be respected in all cases, also an individual canRead MoreEthical Nursing1709 Words   |  7 PagesThe aim of this essay is to discuss an ethical issue encountered whilst on placement. The discussion will focus on the influence of the key ethics theories of deontology and utilitarianism, ethics principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice on decision-making in practice. It will consider the patients’ and staffs’ values and beliefs, legislation and professional practice. Confidentiality will be respected by using a pseudonym, Carol, in accordance with the Nursing and MidwiferyRead MoreEffectiveness Of Group Education Intervention815 Words   |  4 PagesTO INCREASE CERVICAL CANCER SCREENING UPTAKE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Ethics has become a cornerstone when doing effective and meaningful research. Hence, the ethical behaviour of researchers is under unprecedented scrutiny (Best Kahn, 2006). Ethics in Public health involves identification, analysis, and resolving of ethical problems springing up in Public health practice. Ethical principles that govern public health practice are mainly expected to increase benefit and reduce harmRead MoreThe Ethics Of Medical Ethics Essay1242 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction â€Å"Ethics are a set of beliefs about right and wrong†. The idea about medical ethics was first brought up by Hippocrates in the Hippocratic Oath in about the 4th century BC. The Oath states that doctors should always keep their patients prior to anything else and should avoid causing harm. (Brightknowledge.org, 2016) The health, life and death of a human being is in the hands of a medical doctor and other health care professionals. They have direct contact with the patients, prescribeRead MoreThe Ethics Of Cosmetic Surgery1264 Words   |  6 PagesThe Ethics of Cosmetic Surgery Cosmetic surgery, a type of elective surgery undertaken to alter a person’s appearance for reasons beyond injury, illness, or disease, has become increasingly pervasive in society in the past few decades despite sparking controversial debates. (Coleman, 171) While reconstructive surgery is condoned, cosmetic surgery occupies a gray area where physicians â€Å"dedicated to saving lives, healing, and promoting health† perform â€Å"invasive surgical operations on healthy bodiesRead MoreA Universal Understanding Of Professional Practice1746 Words   |  7 Pagesbiomedical principles in nursing practice allows not only for the nurse to better their practice but also enables the patient to receive the best standard of care possible (NMC Code of Conduct, 2015, p.4). These most influential key principles include: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. The first area of speculation depends on the recognition of autonomy. Autonomy is derived from the Greek meaning to self-govern (Boyes, 2015). However the word itself is not only one solid principle withinRead MoreNursing Ethics : The Four Biomedical Principles Of Nursing1550 Words   |  7 Pagesbiomedical principles of nursing which refer to: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. Specifically looking at autonomy I will further discuss and explain why I have chosen this principle, its value to good nursing practice and demonstrate its relation to mental health nursing, specifically dementia. Following this I will adhere to the conflicts that may impede its implementation in practice with autonomy, address the legal and professional obligations as a nurse in relation to autonomy andRead MoreEthical Issues Of Children Are A Precious Gift From God With Blessing1403 Words   |  6 Pages Children are a precious gift from God with blessing. However, these children with no special power are mortal beings, who may also suffer sickness and disease. As parents, the responsibilities of children are to care, protect and provide beneficences due to they are incompetent to make own decisions yet. Nevertheless, in some circumstances, the decisions, are made by parents, may deteriorate youngster s health condition. In addition, the worsening health problem may cause and bring various moralRead MoreLegal Affairs And Ethics Of Medical Practice Essay1294 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction This article will attempt to demonstrate and assess legal affairs and ethics in medical practice. What are the main concerns and responsibilities, what is considered as being legitimate and juridical and what is unlawful and unacceptable. This essay will also provide you with a knowledge about ethical principles, rules and theories used in Health Care methodology as well as legal patients’ rights. We face and run into moral dilemmas and problems every day during our life. A largeRead MoreEthical Behavior And Decision Making Essay1053 Words   |  5 PagesDescription of Ethical Issue Ethics is an area of study that deals with the ideas about what are morally good and bad behaviors (Finkelman Kenner, 2016). A study of ethical behavior and decision-making about ethical issues in nursing is one of the most important aspects. Nurses are confronted almost daily with ethical challenges in making decisions when there is no right or wrong answer in the provision of patient’s quality care (Ulrich, et al., 2010, p 2510). When it comes to decision-making

Prp Theories Free Essays

string(164) " theory to explain why companies use performance-related pay: agency theory, motivation theories \(expectancy, equity\), and institutional and legitimacy theories\." HUMAN RESOUCE MANAGEMENT CONTENTS 1. Introduction1 2. Literature review2 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Prp Theories or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1Emergence of PRP2 2. 2Concept of PRP3 2. 3Relevant theories of PRP4 2. 3. 1Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s motivational theory4 2. 3. 2Equity theory in PRP5 3. Case study6 3. 1Case one: â€Å"Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? † (Bender, 2004)6 3. 2Case two: â€Å"Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service† (Dowling Richardson, 1997)9 4. Analysis and Evaluation of PRP Theory in Business Organisations11 4. 1Comparison11 4. Contrast12 4. 3Performance related pay theory in business organizations13 4. 3. 1Motivates employees and improve their performance14 4. 3. 2Facilitates change to organizational cultural14 4. 3. 3Encourages the internalization of performance norms15 4. 4Problems of PRP in practice15 4. 4. 1Setting performance objectives16 4. 4. 2Assessment and ratings17 4. 4. 3Reward17 5. Conclusion18 Reference19 Appendices21 1. Introduction Nowadays, Human Resource Man agement has become a strategic and coherent approach more than just managing the competencies and skills of employees in an organization. Armstrong (2002) noticed that HRM is much more focus on people not jobs, and so does business organization (Lewis, 1998). Yet, people have been placed as an important role of business. To this extent, this essay will take a critical look at PRP which is based on people, and also considered as an essential and sensitive part of the HRM in organizations today. The paper starts with a brief review of recent literature which reports studies of PRP systems. It continues with describing two case studies related to the practical discrepancy to PRP theories. It goes on to our own independent critical analysis by comparing the PRP theories and practice in real world. Finally, there are conclusions being drawn about the appropriateness of PRP in a research environment. 2. Literature review 2. 1 Emergence of PRP Performance-related pay (PRP) emerged in the early 1980’s which attempts to relate individual performance at work to reward, aiming to motivate people ad develop performance-oriented cultures. Besides business organisations, some public institutions such as governments and universities also adopt PRP as an essential level for championing values. By comparing with other payment schemes, the PRP idea was whole-heartedly accepted by employers and played a much more positive effect on improving employees’ behaviour and organisations’ culture. According to the IPD research into performance management practices in 1997, 43 per cent of respondents had PRP; additionally, IBS research in 1998 showed that 61 per cent of answers satisfied their merit pay. These figures make it easy to see that PRP have been widely applied among organizations whatever businesslike or public facility (Armstrong, 2002). There are a variety of reasons why organization may applied PRP. Armstrong and Murlis (1994) stated that ‘it is right and proper for people to be rewarded in accordance with their contribution’. According to Pilbeam Colbridge (2002), there are a number of factors contributing to the emergence of PRP, which is identified in Figure 1. The Thatcher legacy and ‘enterprise’ values in the public sector Increasingly competitive environment and concern with employee performance Unitary and neo-unitary employment relations perspectives Reassertion of the ‘right to manage’ and increasing managerial control Influence of HRM demagogy Strategic integration of reward Trends towards individualism and the weakening of collectivism Emergence of PRP Figure 1: Factors contributing to the emergence of PRP (Pilbeam Corbridge, 2002) 2. 2 Concept of PRP ACAS (1990) defined individual performance-related pay (PRP) as â€Å"a method of payment where an individual employee receives increases in pay based wholly or partly on the regular and systematic assessment of job performance†. Additionally, Murlis (1996) claimed a significant distinction between the use of PRP to managing performance straight from the motivational stimulation of financial rewards (motivation) and the use of PRP to identify different levels of performance (reward). Based on these points, PRP can be commented as a combination of three key factors: motivation, performance and rewards, which work in two ways that motivating people to achieve expected performance; and rewarding these people who have achieved successful performance. Based on these three factors and their relationships, Pilbeam and Corbridge (2002) identified three stages for PRP application: Firstly, setting individual performance criteria by imposition, discussion or agreement firstly; secondly, assessing performance against individual performance criteria which established in stage1; thirdly, allocating pay to the assessment of performance by the exercise of managerial prerogative. 2. 3 Relevant theories of PRP 3. 2 2. 3. 1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s motivational theory in PRP Maslow’s (1943, 1987) hierarchy of needs and the two factor theory of Herzberg (1959) indicated that pay can be considered as the most effective way to satisfy human’s need and further to motivate people to work more effectively, which means appropriate payment can stimulate employee to achieve successful performance that maximizing organisation’s benefits. Kessler and Purcell (1922) noted that employees will be easily motivated if there is a direct and close relationship between performance and reward. Therefore, PRP schemes could motivate the employees to increase their efforts to accomplish good performance. 2. 3. 2 Equity theory in PRP The Equity theory of Adams (1965) identified that employees have a strong need to be treated fairly which can be balanced by an equity between their input like work performance and output like rewarding. Compared to other types of pay like non-incentive pay which is based on collectively-negotiated rule, PRP associates employees’ productivity with their behaviour, rewarding employees for their successful performance, which is much more fair and reasonable. From these theories, we can see that PRP has brought a lot of potential benefits on improving HRM efficiency of organization. However, there are some shortages in PRP application in practice, which will be discussed in following two empirical case analyses. 3. Case study 3. Case one: â€Å"Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? † (Bender, 2004) The paper focused on the issue of rewards to the listed companies’ executive director. There are variable ways to pay the rewards. Thus the performance-related pay introduced to this paper. At the beginning of this paper prior research introduces three types of theory to explain why companies use performance-related pay: agency theory , motivation theories (expectancy, equity), and institutional and legitimacy theories. You read "Prp Theories" in category "Essay examples" Research designing utilized 12 companies’ interviews with 35 persons who stand in different positions. These interviews lasted for two years from December 2001 to May 2003. The interviews reflected different opinions about the influence of PRP. Some of the answers demonstrated PRP could motivate people to do work well: Alan Wilson, chief executive of Skandia UK regarded pay as a motivator; a HR director thought if everyone was paid the same base salary, they would always do the same. But a part of the respondents denied that PRP made an effort in motivating people in the work. A CEO argued that whether PRP works depends on which market you were in and also on when the people were on flat salaries. Also another respondent held a neutral idea on motivation of PRP to managers. A CEO categorized his employees into two types: one type chased money and the other worked for vocational interests and he realized that PRP was in a position to exert influence on those who chased money and not on employees worked for vocational interests. At the end of this part the author reaches the conclusion that lack of money is a de-motivator. Furthermore, interviews demonstrated some different ideas: a) Payment represents personal value of employees. The more contribution you have made, the more you can earn; b) Focus and fairness: according to the answers from interviewees, we can find that the company adopts PRP with the intention to make executives focus on their work efforts and fairness can improve employees’ performance; c) The need to provide alignment: here is a large number of factors influence performance in long-term and some of those cannot be observed currently; d) Other reasons to introduce performance-related pay: the requirement of government to adopt PRP and because of everybody has it so you has to have it; e) Problems with performance-related pay: a consultant pointed out that PRP system would bring unpredictable problems especially in long-term and it is difficult to select appropriate measure and tar gets. Market Practices Need for Legitimacy Need to Attract and Retain Implement a performance-related reward scheme Set performance measures and targets and use it to communicate strategy Directors’ actions and behaviours Business performance Performance-related award Monetary award Increased human capital for future negotiations Effect on individual’s self worth Figure 2: Why Companies use performance-related pay (Bender, 2004) In the final part, the author summarizes this case study according to three theories mentioned at the beginning of our description and draws figure 1 to show why companies performance-related pay. . 2 Case two: â€Å"Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service† (Dowling Richardson, 1997) This paper includes 4 sections. Section 1 explains the NHS system which means the performance related pay system for general management in 1989. Section 2 concludes the evaluation criteria and explanatory framework. PRP is introduced on the initiative of management. According to Cannel an d Wood’s survey, PRP could be introduced to overcome problems with existing systems, o encourage employees’ motivation, to improve communication with work force, to reduce problems of recruitment. Kessler suggested that the PRP might also be used to improve the fairness of a payment system, to reduce union influence and the importance of collective bargaining, can also give additional influence to line managers. The purpose of PRP is said to reward those manage who achieve a more than competent standard of work and motivate managers to perform better. Section 3 values the efficiency of the scheme and four measures are utilized to check the outcome of the scheme. Managers had to be assessed by their supervisors and receive reward based on their performance if they had finished targets set at the beginning of the year. In NHS, the HR department designed the PRP system in order to motivate managers. However, through self-reported data from the managers covered by the PRP system, a majority of respondents saw the scheme as having little or no effect on their motivation to do their jobs well. Also the authors did not found solid evidence to show that there are corresponding negative consequences of PRP. The initial examination of the raw data clearly suggests that the three elements of the scheme achieved different degrees of success. The objective-setting elements seemed to be widely supported. It could be observed that the scheme’s rewards were either not appropriate or not sufficiently attractive to act as a motivator. PRP include the way in which performance standards are set and monitored. Section 4 explains the effects of PRP in the NHS. About 85% respondents showed satisfaction with the objective –setting process. Furthermore, they also agreed that the challenge offered by the objective measures increase their determination to achieve their goal set before. On the other hand, there was also much critical comment on reward system such as subjectivity and appraiser bias. In addition, the PRP reward system was always cash limited. 4. Analysis and Evaluation of PRP Theory in Business Organisations 2 3 4. 1 Comparison Both of the two cases are involved in the topic of PRP, and focus on the effectiveness of PRP scheme. In addition, both of the researches partly agree that PRP is successful in some areas or in some extend, however, PRP is still not a perfect scheme due to various reasons. As what has been pointed out to be the problems in PRP, among all of the reasons mentioned in the papers, the objective-setting process has been pointed out in both of the researches, which indicates that this might be one of the key points which should be considered to improve PRP scheme. What is more, both of the papers mention that PRP is introduced in order to â€Å"attract and retain executives with the potential of large earnings†(Bender, 2004) and â€Å"to improve the fairness of a payment system, to generate employee commitment† (Dowling and Richardson, 1997), which can be considered as the positive points of PRP. 4. 2 Contrast The methods used in the research in the two cases are different. The case about PRP in the National Health Service used both quantitative and qualitative date from a questionnaire survey (Dowling and Richardson, 1997). While, the case conducted by Bender (2004) used qualitative date from an interview survey. Moreover, the perspectives used in the two papers also vary. As to the reasons why PRP is not more successful, Dowling and Richardson (1997) consider that there are three kinds of employees as being particularly important: firstly, those who think that the objective-setting process of PRP is coped with terribly; secondly, those who think the assessments are handled badly; lastly, those who believe that the rewards are not attractive enough to encourage their motivation. They hold the opinion that PRP has a less important influence on these people, which indicates that the improvement of objective-setting process, assessments and rewards might lead to improving the effect of PRP. While, the paper conducted by Bender (2004) indicates that the reason that PRP is not so successful is also related to the market in which directors are. Besides, salary and rewards are not the only recourses that could motivate managers. For instance, leisure can also play a significant role in the performance of managers. Additionally, PRP scheme has less important impact on those people who mainly work for vocational interests. Meanwhile, this paper (Bender, 2004) pays more attention to the reasons that PRP is used by companies. The writer points out some more reasons from interviews with directors other than the strong points of PRP which have been mentioned above. To be exactly, pay can be deemed as a symbol of worth and how much one can earn is associated with the self esteem for the executives. In the end, we can see from the two papers that PRP has developed successfully from 1997 to 2004 because what are reflected in the papers shows us that PRP has been used much more and been recognized in a wider range. As a result, we can conclude that with the use of PRP, this scheme has become and also will become more and more mature and contribute a lot to business organizations. 4. 3 Performance related pay theory in business organizations This section conducts analysis of two empirical cases critically and assesses the value of PRP theory and benefits it achieves in business organizations. The whole objective of pay related systems like the PRP and other HRM theories is obviously to bring or add to the value of business organizations. When we take a look at the first paper, it is obvious that on the average PRP increases an organization’s value. The following are the perceived benefits of the PRP theory: 4 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4. 1 Motivates employees and improve their performance The human needs hierarchy theory of Maslow (1943, 1987) and the two factors theory of Herzberg (1959) indicate that in modern society satisfying human needs like payment is in a position to motivate people to work harder. Furthermore, in business organisations payment related to performance can stimulate people to accomplish the performance that organizations want. Kessler and Purcell (1992) claimed that if direct relationship exists between effort, performance and reward, employees would be motivated. PRP schemes act exactly as this direct link motivating the employees to increase their efforts. 5. 4. 2 Facilitates change to organizational cultural Kessler and Purcell (1992) argued that PRP refers to flexibility, dynamism, entrepreneurial spirit and careful allocation of resources, leading to a performance-orientated culture. Therefore, the introduction of PRP facilitates change in business organizations culture from collectively negotiated formula to individual contribution, which assists in solving problems, increasing value of organizations, and reducing problems of recruitment and retention. 5. 4. Encourages the internalization of performance norms â€Å"PRP can encourage the internalization of the organisation’s goal or norms of behaviour among the employees of the organization† (Geary, 1992). In the implementation of PRP, the organisation’s norms of behaviour can be enhanced by rewarding congruous work effects and by punishing incongruous performance. Th ereby, it strengthens management control and clarifies job roles within organizations. 5. 4 Problems of PRP in practice Theoretically, PRP can produce many benefits for organizations, which have been demonstrated above. However, there are always gaps between theories and practice of PRP. In this part data from the NHS case will be utilized to illustrate some problems of PRP. Figure 3 above shows that only 2 percent respondents consider PRP as the motivator for them to work harder while respondents with opposite idea accounts for 45 percent. Also 67 percent respondents embrace neutral idea on the question of whether PRP scheme affect motivation to do the job and 77 percent respondents did not feel more co-operation after the introduction of PRP scheme. Question| Negative Positive| Does PRP have effect on your motivation to do the job well? 2| 3| 67| 25| 4| You consciously work harder because of the PRP scheme. | 45| 26| 17| 10| 2| You focus on PRP objectives rather than other activities. | 34| 34| 20| 10| 2| PRP changes co-operation level among colleagues| 2| 12| 77| 8| 1| Figure 3: PRP in the National Health Service (Dowling and Richardson, 1997) 5. 5. 4 Setting performance objectives It is essential for organizations to set up clear and measurable objectives so that the behaviour of employees can be guided by objectives. However, imposition and narrowness of PRP in objective-setting could lead to failure of the implementation. What’s more, short term approach stemming from narrow and misleading objectives could make employees ignore intangible aspects and long-term tasks. Therefore, the weakness of PRP in objective-setting could discourage behaviour that is not financially rewarded and prevent business organizations from functioning well. 5. 5. 5 Assessment and ratings Assessment and ratings are indispensable stage of PRP system. In practice, two crucial elements during these processes, scales of ratings and fair appraisals made by managers are difficult to achieved, which make employees not satisfied with ratings given to them. As Belfield and Marsden (2002) argued that the use of PRP will do more harm than good if the right monitoring environment is not in place. 5. 5. 6 Reward PRP regards reward as the motivator for employees to work hard, which is often not the case in practice. Maslow’s theory of the Hierarchy of Needs (1943) stated that payment is not the only need of human beings. Besides payment, people also have mental requirements such as belongingness needs, esteem needs and self-actualization. 5. Conclusion After critical analysis and assessment we can finally reach the conclusion that in theory PRP is in a position to provide business organizations certain benefits such as motivating employees, improving their performance, attracting executives, facilitating change in organizational culture and encouraging the internalization of performance norms. However, due to imposition and narrowness in objective-setting, unfairness and inaccuracy in assessment and ratings, and diversification of human needs, theoretical benefits of PRP cannot be reached. Therefore, more attention should be paid on the gap between HRM theories and their application in practice so that HRM theories can assist business organizations in increasing their values. Reference ACAS, 1990. Appraisal-related Pay. London: ACAS. Adams, J. S. , 1965. Inequity in social exchange. In: Berkowitz, L. ed. , Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press, 267-299. Armstrong, M. , 2002. Employee reward. 3rd ed. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Armstrong, M. ; Murlis, H. , 1994. Reward Management, London: Kogan Page. Belfield, R. ; Marsden, D. , 2002. Matchmaking: the influence of monitoring environments on the effectiveness of performance pay systems. Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK. Bender, R. , 2004. Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? Corporate Government, 12(4), pp. 521-533. Dowling, B. ; Richardson, R. , 1997. Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service. The Intematioruil Joumal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), pp. 348-366. Herzberg, F. , 1959. The Motivation to work, New York: John Wiley. Geary, J. F. , 1992. Pay, control and commitment: linking appraisal and reward. Human Resource Management Journal, 2(4), pp. 36-54. Kessler, I. ; Purcell, J. , 1992. Performance-related pay: objectives and application. Human resource management Journal, 2(3), pp. 16-23 Lewis, P. , 1998. Management performance-related pay based on evidence from the financial services sector. Human Resource Management Journal, 8(2), pp. 66-77 Maslow, A. H. , 1943. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, pp. 370-396. Maslow, A. H. , 1987. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper ; Row. Murlis, H. , 1996. Pay at the Crossroads. London: Institute of Personnel Development. Pilbeam, S. ; Corbridge, M. , 2002. People Resourcing: HRM in Practice. 2nd ed. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall. Appendices Tow papers: Bender, R. , 2004. Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? Corporate Government, 12(4), pp. 521-533. Dowling, B. ; Richardson, R. , 1997. Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), pp. 348-366. How to cite Prp Theories, Essay examples

Steam Engines Essay Example For Students

Steam Engines Essay The Steam EngineThe steam engine provided a landmark in the industrial development of Europe. The first modern steam engine was built by an engineer, Thomas Newcomen, in 1705 to improve the pumping equipment used to eliminate seepage in tin and copper mines. Newcomens idea was to put a vertical piston and cylinder at the end of a pump handle. He put steam in the cylinder and then condensed it with a spray of cold water; the vacuum created allowed atmospheric pressure to push the piston down. In 1763 James watt, an instrument-maker for Glasgow University, began to make improvements on Newcomens engine. He made it a reciprocating engine, thus changing it from an atmospheric to a true steam engine. He also added a crank and flywheel to provide rotary motion. In 1774 the industrialist Michael Boulton took Watt into partnership, and their firm produced nearly five hundred engines before Watts patent expired in 1800. Water power continued in use, but the factory was now liberated from the streamside. A Watt engine drove Robert Fultons experimental steam vessel Clermont up the Hudson in 1807. RailroadsThe coming of the railroads greatly facilitated the industrialization of Europe. At mid.eighteenth century the plate or rail track had been in common use for moving coal from the pithead to the colliery or furnace. After 1800 flat tracks were in use outside London, Sheffield, and Munich. With the expansion of commerce, facilities for the movement of goods from the factory to the ports or cities came into pressing demand. In 1801 Richard Trevithick had an engine pulling trucks around the mine where he worked in Cornwall. By 1830 a railway was opened from Liverpool to Manchester; and on this line George Stephensons Rocket pulled a train of cars at fourteen miles an hour. The big railway boom in Britain came in the years 1844 to 1847. The railway builders had to fight vested interests-for example, canal stockholders, turnpike trusts, and horse breeders-but by 1850, aided by cheap iron and better machine tools, a network of railways had been built. By midcentury railroad trains travelling at thirty to fifty miles an hour were not uncommon, and freight steadily became more important than passengers. After 1850 in England the state had to intervene to regulate what amounted to a monopoly of inland transport. But as time went on the British railways developed problems. The First World War (1914-1918) found them suffering from overcapitalization, rising costs, and state regulation. British success with steam locomotion, however, was enough to encourage the building of railroads in most European countries, often with British capital, equipment, and technicians. Railroads became a standard item of British export. After 1842 France began a railroad system which combined private and public enterprise. The government provided the roadbed and then leased it to a private company which provided the equipment. In Russia, Canada, and the United States, railways served to link communities separated by vast distances. In Germany there were no vast empty spaces, but railroads did help to affect political and economic integration.